These were followed by Julian the Apostate, who made every attempt to resurrect paganism. In this he also adapted some of the vestiges of Christianity, by aligning the pagan priesthood after the model of the rising apostate clergy. It was at this point that the remaining pagans began to use the priest as the mediator between god and man, as it was developing in the digressive churches. Christians were prohibited from teaching science and law in schools. And the temple properties were once again being returned to the state without indemnity. He immediately attempted to reestablish the intolerance and hatred of the empire through its system of temples and worship. He was unsuccessful. But while at it his writings acted as a historical nod to the authenticity of the Gospels and Acts. He quoted them all, and noted that they were the received texts of the Christians. He also referred to both letters to Corinth, that of the Romans and the Galatian letter. He also verifies the time frame of the Gospels and of Acts.

The next emperors were Jovian, Valentinian I and Theodosius. During the reign of Theodosius emperor worship and Roman pantheism was designated as paganismus: peasant’s religion. It had all but retreated from the cities of the empire for the final time. The empire or what remained was again split into two: eastern and western. The sons of Arcadius ruled in the east while Honorius held the west. Theodosius II ascended to the eastern throne and Valentinian II to the western. The temples of Roman emperor worship and paganism were destroyed by Theodosius II allowing them to be turned again into public buildings or Christian assemblies. There was persecution of both Christians and pagans throughout this period. But paganism also saw its final end as the religion of the empire by the conclusion of his reign. At the same time the seeds of Romanism had been sown and were now sprouting up into the “common or universal” (Catholic) church.

~

 If anyone speaks, let him speak as the oracles of God. If anyone ministers, let him do it as with the ability which God supplies, that in all things God may be glorified through Jesus Christ, to whom belong the glory and the dominion forever and ever. Amen.

Beloved, do not think it strange concerning the fiery trial which is to try you, as though some strange thing happened to you; but rejoice to the extent that you partake of Christ’s sufferings, that when His glory is revealed, you may also be glad with exceeding joy. If you are reproached for the name of Christ, blessed are you, for the Spirit of glory and of God rests upon you. On their part He is blasphemed, but on your part He is glorified.

But let none of you suffer as a murderer, a thief, an evildoer, or as a busybody in other people’s matters. Yet if anyone suffers as a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but let him glorify God in this matter.

For the time has come for judgment to begin at the house of God; and if it begins with us first, what will be the end of those who do not obey the gospel of God? Now, if the righteous one is scarcely saved, where will the ungodly and the sinner appear? Therefore let those who suffer according to the will of God commit their souls to Him in doing good as to a faithful Creator.

(1 Peter 4: 11-19)

During the reign of Severus the Roman government issued the first official edict of persecution against Christianity. This period is also when the Roman Empire was split into eastern and western camps with near continuous battles for control by the co-emperors and other contenders.

Caracalla (Lucius Septimius Bassianus) and his brother (Publius Septimius Geta) followed Severus and collectively ruled from 211 to 217. They actually came to be appointed co-emperors while their father Severus was still ruling, imposing three Caesars or Antonines on the empire for the first time. Caracalla was the first son of Severus and was only second behind him as a tyrant. Upon the death of Severus, Caracalla and Geta continued as co-emperors. This situation lasted until Caracalla had his brother killed by mercenaries, as they were to negotiate their territories and end the civil war that had surrounded their ambitions and scrabble for power. As with the others, martyrdoms continued under both and through the reign of Elagabalus, the eventual successor. Caracalla also had his mother Julia murdered. They were fine folks all.

In 217 Marcus Opellius Macrinus had been the head of the Praetorians under both Severus and Caracalla. Caracalla began plotting to kill him to secure the allegiance of the Praetorians, but word of the plot came to Macrinus by accident. He in turn had Caracalla murdered and then on the third day following had the Consul Adventus appointed emperor. Adventus, being somewhat brighter than most of his contemporaries, knew of Macrinus’s ambition and immediately abdicated in favor of the Praetorian, so quickly in fact, that the senate never actually confirmed him as emperor. Macrinus then immediately appointed his son, Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus, Emperor and Antoninus (the favored title since the Antonines had ruled) although he remained the actual power within the empire. The reign of the son was nearly as short-lived as had been his father’s (twelve months and fourteen months), both ending in 218.

Both Macrinus and later Diadumenianus were murdered, and the Praetorians and the other co-conspirators wrongly identified Elagabalus or Heliogabalus (given name: Varius Avitus Bassus) as the son of Caracalla (whose reputation then seemed somehow redeemed). He was in fact a descendant of Severus’ wife’s sister and not a direct heir of either Severus or of Caracalla as based upon the then accepted although not usually followed lines of succession. That was all overlooked and he was enthroned in 218. He did not survive very long and was murdered in 222. This era, that of the Severan Emperors lasting from 192 and ending in 235 (with the exception of Alexander’s reign) was one of the worst periods of persecutions of Christians and also of general mayhem within the government of Rome.

Alexander Severus (Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, 222 — 235), last of the Severans, was an adopted son of Elagabalus and had been appointed Caesar by him. They had ruled jointly for a short time until Elagabalus was murdered. Alexander’s own rule was much longer and mostly peaceful, as unlike his father, his popularity with the Praetorians and the people both acted to protect and prolong his life. Upon his death Maximinus Thrax (Gaius Iulius Verus Maximinus) was briefly appointed emperor followed by his son Maximus as Caesar and finally by his son Balbinus also as Caesar. These were all murdered in various intrigues.

This period of upheavals and removals was followed by a worsening period of civil wars when emperors were typically put in place by the legions and also dispatched with equal swiftness. The more lengthy or notable reigns (if that can be said) were those of Philip, Decius, Gallus, Aemilianius, Valerian, Gallienus, Claudius of Pavia, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus and his sons Carinus and Numerian. Of these mentioned, Philip, who reigned for seven years, was sympathetic to the Christians though in his successors Decius’ reign, he had the distinction of being the worst for persecutions during this period following the Severans and preceding that of the Gordians.

During this darkening period the Goths (at the time actually the Ostrogoths) first attacked the Roman Empire sacking Byzantium in 267 while Claudius of Pavia was emperor. There were no less than 20 emperors between 235 and 285 and 40 other men that each laid claim to the titles Caesar, Augustus or Antoninus at some point. There were also periods of near total collapse in the government.

Of these emperors several (such as Maximinus Thrax, Maximus, and the three Gordians beginning with Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus) persecuted Christians and entire communities were burned and destroyed. The persecutions included murdering church leaders, looting and burning public worship areas along with the confiscation or burning of private homes. These types of activities continued unabated into the fourth century.

The greatest persecution (the longest and most severe) occurred during the reign of Diocletian (Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus), even though he was generally considered a benevolent ruler. He ruled alone until his abdication in 305. The throne then was briefly held by yet another emperor named Severus, Flavius Valerius Severus, who ruled from 306 through 307. After that brief rule, the empire was no longer under an emperor or one Caesar each for east and west, but came under the rule of four titled Augusti and Caesari, one of these being Diocletian (Caesar along with Maximian – Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius), another being his son Galerius Maximianus (Augustus along with Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine).

In 311, Galerius sought atonement for his and the persecutions of the others and issued the Edict of Toleration for Christianity, which was largely ignored in the empire until Constantine assumed the throne of Rome in 313.

Licinius (Flavius Galerius Valerius Licinianus Licinius) reigned with Maximinus Daia, as co-emperors following the rule of the two Caesari and two Augusti. He defeated Maximinus and later also served as co-regent with Constantine. A civil war erupted between the two (oddly enough over power). Constantine (a Greek name derived from the Latin word meaning constant or consistent), the first non-Latin named emperor, eventually defeated Licinius following yet another civil war.

Constantine was then named sole Imperator in 323 once again uniting the eastern and western empires under a single leader. Under Constantine the Edict of Toleration was reissued known as the Edict of Milan (324), and by 325 Christianity was granted recognition as religio licita and the persecutions of the Roman government officially and in fact ended.

Although Constantine the Great was considered the first Christian emperor, he was perhaps less a Christian than he was a smart politician and able ruler. He was capable of seeing the advancing value of the religion and thereby aligned his fortunes with it to the continuation of the faltering empire.

This concludes our little exercise in the history of Rome up through 325 AD. The Roman Empire continued on this path of decline until 476 when it finally collapsed from the external threat of invasion and the internal virus of corruption. It has been said that the spread of Christianity was in large part responsible for the collapse of the Roman Empire, and should you decide to research that thought, you might conclude that it is true (as the book of Revelation implies).

During the reign of Trajan the Coliseum was opened for business and sporting pleasure. You should already know that the Christians were the primary group chosen to appear there as targets and victims. In spite of all of that, Trajan was considered by historians as one of the best of the emperors.

The theologian and historian J. B. Lightfoot expressed that the laws discouraging the following of any religion against the state religion had always been in place in Rome.

“The law was there, if any one were disposed to call it into action. But for long period of time it lay dormant. Only now and then the panic of a populace, or the bigotry of a magistrate, or the malice of some influential personage, awoke it into activity. Sometimes it was enforced against one or two individuals, sometimes against collective numbers. But, as a rule, there was no disposition to deal hardly with the Christians, who were for the most part peaceful and industrious citizens. In this respect Christianity was on the same footing with other prohibited religions…The good emperors, as a rule, were not more friendly to Christianity than the bad.

…The Roman religion was essentially political. The deification of the dead emperor, the worship of the genius of the living emperor, were the direct logical result of this political system. An arbitrary, unscrupulous prince might disregard this system; a patriotic Roman could not. Hence the tragic fact that the persecutions of Trajan and M. Aurelius were among the severest on record for the early church. On the other hand, the Christians had almost as much to hope, as to fear, from the unscrupulousness of a bad emperor. If the caprice of a Nero persecuted them, the caprice of a Commodus not only spared but favored them.”

Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus, or Hadrian as he was commonly known, followed his near relative Trajan (117 — 138). The last and most thorough destruction of Jerusalem was completed under his watchful eye. This is widely overlooked by students and scholars alike.

This revolt of the Jews was put down in three years (ending in 135), during which time Jerusalem was once again burned and the temple mound and much of the city plowed up (“…not one stone will be left upon another”). The Romans built a new city upon the ruins which they named Aelia Capitolina. Aelia being a form of the name Aelius, in honor of Hadrian, and Capitolina indicating that it was also dedicated to Jupiter Capitolina, the Roman god whose temple (among others) had been erected on the site of the Temple ruins. Jews were not allowed to enter the new city.

During this time the Romans renamed the region of Judea Palestine, as it remains to this day. For one day each year the Jews were allowed to congregate upon Mount Olivet to pray, weep and lament for the city. This situation continued unimpeded until the reign of Constantine.

The Christian population of Jerusalem continued to increase until 637 when the Muslims under the Caliphate seized Palestine and Jerusalem.

Hadrian was followed by Titus Antoninus Pius (Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius). With Hadrian the Flavian dynasty came to an end, and with Titus Antoninus the period of the Antonine Emperors began (138 — 161). Antoninus or Pius (a title meaning “dutiful in affection”) had no care for Christians and their assemblies were decreed illegal societies. There were many martyrs during the full period of the Antonines although they were known as the five good emperors. Persecutions and martyrdoms began in earnest and essentially continued without a break from this point until the time of Constantine.

The second of the Antonines was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (161 — 180). His given name was Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, and upon marriage he took the name Marcus Annius Verus. He also came from a prominent family and his father had held the appointment of Consul.

During his reign the Jews were restored to their religious freedom in all but Jerusalem. As in the time of the writing of the book of Acts of Apostles, the Jews had remained busy and successfully promoted many Christian martyrs. Although such actions continued under Marcus, nothing concerning empire wide persecutions is found in the historical records. However, he was emperor during the general Christian persecutions in the regions of Vienne and Lyons, as was noted by Edward Gibbon in his landmark study The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the source for much of the information found in these essays. Marcus was the true ruler at this time although the younger Verus was vested as co-regent with him.

As was noted, the first chosen heir of Hadrian had been his adopted son Lucius Aelius Verus. He died shortly after appointment as co-emperor with Titus Antoninus Pius. His son, Lucius Aurelius Verus, then was appointed to rule jointly with Marcus at Titus Antoninus’ request (from 161 — 169). Marcus then was the power on the throne while the younger Verus was content to partake of the vices accorded his position. Both emperors maintained homosexual lovers. For the son as with his father, nothing specific is recorded concerning any widespread persecutions of Christians during their reigns although scattered or local persecutions continued unabated.

Gaius Avidius Cassius briefly usurped the role of Caesar upon a false report of the death of Marcus in 175. However, he never made it to a coronation although he was listed as emperor by the senate.

Commodus (Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus) was the son of Marcus Aurelius, and following the deaths of first Verus the younger and then his own father, he assumed the throne (180 — 192). He entertained debauchery likened to Nero, Domitian and the Verus’s, and also favored the notion that he was a great warrior appearing in over 800 contests at the Coliseum, some real and some choreographed, hence the basis for the plotline in the fictional film “Gladiator.” As was depicted in the movie, he did in fact have a man by the name of Maximus Quintilian murdered (along with his twin brother Condianus) although not in the Coliseum, and not by his own hand. However, they were neither generals nor soldiers. They were simply well known model citizens of Rome against whom he harbored a raging jealousy. You should not get your history, either ancient or modern, from Hollywood.

Commodus’ favorite concubine, his chamberlain, and the prefect of the Praetorians conspired together and poisoned him.

The day following the death of Commodus, Pertinax (Publius Helvius Pertinax) was made emperor and he reigned for a few months before he too was also murdered by the Praetorians. With the death of Commodus what was known as the Five Good Emperors or the Antonine dynasty, came to an end.

Marcus Didius Salvius Julianus Severus, or Didius Julianus, then head of the senate, was wrongheaded enough to think that he should be appointed as the next Caesar when he heard of Pertinax’ murder. As the throne was now available to the highest bidder, he came up with the requirement and was awarded the prize. But as he was without friend or ally he was soon killed by the Prefect of the Praetorians, the Consul Septimius Severus. Pertinax and Julianus had together ruled less than a year. Clodius Albinus, former governor of Britain then assumed the role of emperor though, once again, only for a brief time. He was killed in battle by the same Praetorian, Septimius Severus.

It is also recorded that Nero drove his chariot at night, around his palace compound using the burning bodies of condemned Christians trussed up in oil soaked hides, ignited, and raised to offer light on his way.

At some point just prior to or during his reign, Christianity came to be understood by the Roman authorities as a distinct religion rather than as some splinter sect of the Jews. But there was not any real attempt to bridle Christianity on their parts. The Christians, as had been the case with the Jews, were granted the same tolerance (or intolerance) as with all other foreign religions. The rule was, don’t cause trouble, pay the obliged taxes, and thereby live peacefully under Pax Romana (the Peace of Rome). In quick time, the Christians fell from favor with the Roman officials due to the continued diligent work of the Jews to overthrow what they considered a seditious and spurious religion. And, if nothing else, the Romans at this point were especially adept at handling insurrections of any sort.

It is during the reign of Nero that the Jews in Judea began their most infamous revolt in late 66. Nero dispatched Titus Flavius Vespasianus, or Vespasian, commander of the eastern Legions, to quell the uprising in 68. By the time that Nero committed suicide later that same year, Vespasian had subdued most of Judea and was in the process of isolating Jerusalem. Vespasian returned to Rome leaving son Titus Flavius Vespasianus (Junior carried the same name as his father, but was known as Titus) in charge of the Legions to complete the siege and subjugation.

The Empire at this time was embroiled in more civil strife and there were brief struggles for control within. After the death of Nero there were three named emperors before Vespasian seized total control of Rome.

Historians both ancient and modern unanimously hold that both Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome during the reign of Nero. There are several ancient historical records available in confirmation (some of them reasonable, others not).

The three emperors in the two-year period following the suicide of Nero (the actual time of their collective reigns was just short of 17 months) were Galba, Otho, and Vitellius (68 — 69).

Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galba) ruled seven months six-days while Otho (Marcus Salvius Otho) ruled just three days although he served unofficially as emperor in the interim following the death of Galba. The remainder of the time went to Vitellius (eight months twenty-seven days).

Rome was besieged with insurrections immediately when Galba became emperor. Following Galba’s death, Otho’s reign did not outlast the troubles of the week of his coronation; and the civil strife that had begun following Nero’s death was ended only by the return of Flavius Vespasian to Rome. The city was razed as Vespasian subdued the insurrections and seized power following a difficult battle against Vitellius and his supporters in December of 69. Of the three emperors only the last may be remembered at all and then for all the wrong reasons. Vitellius (court name: Aulus Vitellius Germanicus) was an immense man renowned for his debauchery, lack of manners, and gluttony. The Roman historian Tacitus called him a pig.

Vespasian is listed by historians as the first emperor of the Flavian Dynasty. He was the grandson of a commoner and the son of a regular soldier, who through his own military prowess eventually rose to status of Consul and commander of the Legions. Soon it was claimed that he also had an obscure relation by adoption to Tiberias, who had himself claimed an equally obscure relation to Augustus and therefore to the Julian line (as most of the others also had done). For all practical purposes the Jewish nation ceased to exist during his reign. As noted, Titus, the dutiful eldest son, and no military slouch, completed the siege of Jerusalem in August of 70 destroying most of the city.

Although modern historians doubt his accounting, Josephus (General Joseph Ben Matthias) stated that some two million Jews were slaughtered during the siege or carried into captivity by the conclusion of the events. As the city had been isolated for nearly a year prior to the assault, conditions were terrible within, and the hopelessness of the situation had plenty of time to sink in.

As noted, Titus had completed the siege of Judea in 70 AD, and much of Jerusalem was burned and destroyed, including the looting of the temple and its subsequent burning by the Jews. The genealogical records that had been housed in the temple were there destroyed by the Romans effectively ending the Levitical priesthood. So, the nation of Israel ceased to exist along with its established worship.

This certainly was the beginning of the fulfillment of the prophecies of Jesus as recorded in Matthew 24 and Luke 21, although the fulfillment may have had its completion by the second destruction of Jerusalem under Hadrian in 135. At any rate, it is quite clear that the fortunes of the Jews in this area of the world entered a serious decline beginning in year 70 from which they would never recover. Some later historians mention Vespasian or Titus, as persecutors of Christians although there is no corroborating historical information to substantiate any theory.

Titus was appointed emperor by rights of succession in 79 while Vespasian was still alive and he ruled under his father’s tutelage until 81. He was the older brother of Titus Flavius Domitianus — known as Domitian.

The Christian apologist and historian Irenaeus preferred Titus, or more correctly Teitan, as the name is transliterated from the Greek, as the one identified in Revelation chapter 13 by the number “666.”

Titus was widely honored in his day. He was considered to be level headed and steady. He was also praised for his successful military campaigns which helped to solidify the holdings of Rome, at least for the time being, and most notably for his defeat of the Jews and the subjugation of Judea.

Titus had been a steadying force but was followed on the throne by brother Domitian who ruled from 81 to 96. Domitian was an egoistical monster of similar stripe to Nero, and as Vespasian was now also dead when the younger Flavian acceded to the throne, there was no force for restraint.

Some historians state that the persecution of Christians expanded dramatically during Domitian’s reign. However, noting that he maintained debaucheries, there is simply no historical evidence of any persecutions during his reign, despite mention of a handful of individual trials for heresy which took place in Rome. These are listed by both Eusebius and the Roman historian Dion Cassius. Eusebius’ List of Martyrs did have its beginning during Domitian’s reign, but comparatively speaking, it is not a very long list, with less than one hundred names most of whom were identified in the second and third century. It is interesting to note that Edward Gibbon speculated that the inquisition in Spain was responsible for more Christian martyrs than were all of the rest emperors combined excepting Nero, of course.

Domitian demanded to be addressed as Dominus ac Deum noster (Our Lord and God). Members of his household and military staff conspired together and assassinated him four years prior to the end of the first century.

The historian Kirsopp Lake listed the following; “Eusebius reckons the baptism of Christ as taking place in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, dating his accession from the death of Augustus. As he was then in his thirtieth year, he was born in the forty-second year of Augustus, fourteen years before his death. This is the reckoning of time known as the Christian era.”

This information, if correct, would place the baptism of Christ in 31 or 32 AD, and his birth then as noted by Mr. Lake, in agreement with the ancient writers, as having occurred in 1 or 2 AD. Modern scholars are at odds with this and generally accept an earlier date around BC 4, as noted previously.

(By the way: Do you not find it interesting that somehow only the wise and better educated modern historians can actually manage to get ancient dates and details laid down correctly, even for times so far removed from their day? While the ancient historical sources eventually are rebuffed or discounted by them, as if those long dead hacks and hayseeds could not seem to either tell time, pay attention to the sources and details, or to accurately write down the simplest of things? Who could figure that?)

It was alleged that Gaius Caligula poisoned Tiberius to hasten his departure, as he lay dying.

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, commonly called Caligula (“little soldier”) then was appointed the next emperor in a short reign lasting from 37 to 41. He also had an alleged lineage going back to Julius Caesar as is implied in his court name.

Caligula was simply a madman. In time he declared himself, his wife (who was his sister), and his favorite horse all to be “gods” and therefore to be considered objects of worship. When he was assassinated by his personal servants, he was in the process of sending an army to Jerusalem with a statue of himself which he commanded to have erected in the Holy of Holies in Herod’s Temple (which surely would have caused a revolt). The statue never made it to Judea. He is not mentioned in the New Testament. Caligula is remembered for his riotous living and sexual overindulgences, if you can call that a legacy.

Caligula was followed by the halt Claudius – Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus (41 — 54). Though a Julian, Claudius’ recognition and name rested mainly upon the reputation of his brother Germanicus, the grandfather of Nero, who had been a very popular soldier, Tribune and Consul, and one who many felt was destined in time to be Caesar, that is, prior to his murder. Claudius is mentioned in Acts 9:28. He restored the Jews in Palestine but later banished them from Rome.

For the most part, the reign of Claudius was one of general peace and prosperity. He was chosen to be Caesar by the legions who were amused by his wit, his seeming lack of intelligence, and his easy spirit. He may have appeared to be an idiot, but he survived to rule for thirteen years and maintained his popular base the entire time. He was the only emperor mentioned up to this point that did not keep male children for sexual purposes, and that did not keep concubines (second tier wives) or consorts. Following his time virtually every emperor maintained all of those relationships mentioned above and also engaged in pedophiliac and homosexual unions with a variety of hosts.

Claudius’ second wife Agrippina poisoned him one night with some mushrooms for supper, opening the way for her son from her first marriage, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, or as he preferred, Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, an astute and rising young politician, to lay hold of the title Caesar and then the throne. He was another fellow with two entirely different names, as so many more of the emperors will be found. Notice that the three Claudian Caesars had each appealed to the name of the renowned Germanicus in their court names.

This is not to say that I necessarily believe the history of Rome is accounted a full resolution within the signs of the book of Revelation, but rather that with a little insight into the historical events the reader may begin to formulate an expression concerning the meaning of some of those signs as they are incorporated within the book.

History is not and should not be a “pack of lies told of the dead,” but rather should be a chronological listing of events colored with an occasional minor inaccuracy, errant remark, or some disparate or even desperate commentary of the recorder (whether recognized or not). The study of history is identical to the study of all other topics. Each is like having shellfish for dinner – you will find nourishment, but you will have to work to get to it.

The Julians

As mentioned in the second essay, the first emperor of Rome was Gaius Julius Caesar, who reigned from BC 48 up to his assassination in 44. Some historians do not consider Julius Caesar to be the first Emperor of Rome, but he had himself, with the senate’s approval of course, crowned Imperator the year prior to his death. That seemed to most Romans to amount to his seizing power as king, when traditionally the Tribunes by appointment ran the state through the senate and the Consuls ran the military. This political situation contributed to the ill temper of those who had been his early supporters, and quickly caused his power base to erode in the last year of his life. Rome yet remained a limited republic during this transitional period and for some time into the reign of Octavian. Certainly Caesar survived longer than many of his successors of whom you will soon read. Following his death a period of civil wars ensued interspersed with limited calms that continued until the rise of Octavian.

Gaius Octavianus, commonly known as Octavius or Octavian, ruled from BC 31 to his death in 17 AD. He was the heir and the great grand nephew of Julius. Octavian was appointed as chosen successor by his adopted father and great granduncle just prior to Julius’ death in 44 BC. This troubled appointment was followed by periods of civil strife as some authorities and senators questioned both the lineage and line of succession. At this time, Octavian was the leading member of the Second (and last) Triumvirate along with Marcus Antonius and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and had become a very powerful person in his own right.

During the ensuing struggles for power, both Mark Anthony and Lepidus were defeated, as were all of the other contenders and pretenders who stood in Octavian’s path. As an example of his cunning, Cleopatra, the last pharaoh of Egypt, had conveniently committed suicide as she was faced with the end product of her own treacheries and failed attempts to gain power in Rome. Her current lover, M. Anthony, had failed in his attempt to defeat Octavian and then had also killed himself following his defeat in the Battle of Actium. Once Octavian heard the good news, he had Cleopatra’s twelve-year-old son Caesarian (father: Julius Caesar) put to death. This effectively put an end to any potential for continuing rivalries or claims coming from either the Ptolemy or the Julian lines — the possible challengers, present and possible were dead or neutralized. The Ptolemy’s power base had dated back to the division of the Macedonian empire after the death of Alexander the Great. The four generals that had finally divided Alexander’s empire were Lysimacchus, Ptolemaeus, Seleucus, and Cassander.

Octavian had no loose ends that needed tying up once his rivals were gone and his base had been secured. Although considered the most benevolent of Roman rulers he was astute and clever, a self-seeking conniving murderer. In spite of that, his reign was the longest and most peaceful of all the Roman emperors.

As Octavian consolidated his control between 27 and 31 he was granted or appointed each of the following titles by the senate: Tribune, Proconsul, Pontiff, Imperator and Caesar (or Cesar — the root of the titles Kaiser and Czar). He also was the first to be given the title of Augustus which he preferred (implying deity) and the title and notion of an imperial emperor was downplayed as the masses were yet under the delusion that Rome was still a republic and the senate not simply a rich man’s playground. In this he successfully promoted the empty role of the powerless senate as the continuing power in Rome. Anyone that did not align with him was quickly neutralized either through use of political manuvering or by the military. The ascension of Octavian to Imperator dates to BC 27 when many historians assign the beginning of the Roman Empire. Though now emperor and supreme dictator, he did not actually receive the titles of Caesar and Augustus until BC 31, hence the dates listed here.

Jesus was born during the reign of Augustus (as is recorded in Luke 2:1) although the year and exact date is unknown. Among modern scholars, the year of Jesus’ birth is generally given as BC 4 or thereabout. That date is at odds with all of the known ancient records that each list the year as occurring in 1 AD (or more correctly 749 to 750 AU) as noted previously.

It was widely accepted that Octavian was poisoned by his favorite consort Livia.

The Chaldeans were overthrown by the Persians (Nabonidus never made it home) and the Persians were themselves absorbed by the Medians in less than a generation, ending in 539. That year marks the beginning of the Medo-Persian or simply the Persian Empire. The entire period of the rule of the Persians, the Medes and the combined empire spanned from approximately BC 550 through 323. Some of the notable rulers were Cyrus of Persia (mentioned in Isaiah 45:1 and elsewhere), and Ahasuerus or Xerxes (Esther 1:1 and elsewhere). Median emperors included Darius the Great (who is mentioned in Ezekiel 4:24). The Persians pushed into Europe, throughout the Mid East and also into the Indian sub continent, much as the Chaldeans.

These were followed in history by the Macedonian or Grecian Empire. Alexander the Great, who had assumed the throne of Macedon following his father Philip the Second’s death, defeated the Persians in 323. This empire dates from BC 323 to 146. It is said that Alexander wept when he ran out of people and places to conquer. He had seized most of the real estate that would later come under Roman rule.

These three empires or kingdoms are all mentioned by name in the book of Daniel (Babylon is mentioned throughout – the Medo-Persian in chapters 5:28, 6:8 and 15, and 9:1, – the Macedonian or Grecia in chapters 8:21, 10:20, and 11:2).

Chronologically, the next in line that followed Grecia was Rome, which should figure in any study of New Testament times, early Christianity, or for studies concerning the book of Revelation and the fulfillment of the prophesies there.

Rome — from republic to empire

The city of Rome had been founded 749 years prior to the birth of Jesus: accepting the year 1 AD (that is – 1 Anno Domini which corresponds to 749 Anno Urbis — “Year of the City”) as the year of his birth. This is what is recorded by all of the extant ancient sources that discuss this topic and timeline.

Rome was originally a republican system of city-states much as Greece had been prior to the Macedonian Empire. During this period (and particularly the 100 years preceding the forming of the empire) Rome began to systematically conquer their neighbors and the adjacent countries, notably those in whom they perceived any sort of threat. As they had perfected the armies use and were the masters of military machines of the day – the siege tower, and the catapult, they were able to subjugate all they encountered. By the time of the Antonine emperors, Rome ruled virtually all of Europe, to the north into Scandinavia, the Balkans, all of the Mid East, all of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia and Persia, the bulk of the sub-continent of India, and the upper half of the African continent.

The Empire was consolidated in power beginning with the Triumvir (First Triumvirate) of Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. Struggles for power ensued for several years during which Crassus and Pompey were eventually defeated and assassinated.

In BC 49 Caesar brought his legions across the Rubicon River and into Rome proper initiating a civil war to force his declaration as First Consul (his words upon crossing the Rubicon: “The die is cast”). This was a violation of both longstanding tradition and Roman law: that no citizen should come armed against Rome or its legions. That did not stop Caesar and he gained sole control by BC 48. Caesar had simply decided that he was destined to rule Rome as dictator and in light of his acquired power and fierceness no one was in any position to stop him.

Rome began down the path that would cause it to cease being a republic (which it had been for 520 years) and Julius was granted the title of Imperator in 45. He was also elected by the humbled senate as sole dictator for life, though his life was to come to an end as abruptly as he had come to power. He controlled Rome for less than five years and ruled as emperor for slightly less than a year before he was assassinated by a cabal of Roman Senators and other knife-wielding assassins the following year on the Ides of March (the 14th).

Rome continued down the path to ruin passing through despotic dictatorships, civil wars, and coups, but managed to survive as a world power in some form until the successive invasions of the Germanic tribes: the Thervingi or Visigoths (Western Goths) second but first full-scale invasion under Alaric in 409, the Vandals in 422, the Huns in 440, and finally the Heruli and Greuthungi, or Ostrogoths (the Eastern Goths). The “Dark Ages” are dated from the fall of Rome to the Ostrogoths in 476. By 488 the Ostrogoths had conquered most of northern Europe and all of Italia under Theodoric.

Christ was born during the reign of the second Roman emperor Octavius, and died while his successor Tiberias ruled. The entire New Testament was compiled before the Emperor Domitian had passed.

Peter and Paul met their ends before Nero finished fiddling, and we can rest assured that each of the other living apostles had each gone on to their reward prior to the end of the first century, while likely yet sojourners in the land of the Caesars.

As you cannot read the New Testament (or any number of the prophecies from the Old) without a consideration being given to the formation and rule of the Roman state, it should then be in our own best interest as learners to understand some of the history of the Roman republic and empire.

What part did Rome play in the politics and daily regimen of the Jews of Judea? What is the import of prophesy concerning when the Kingdom of Heaven would be established? What would be the signs of the government that would be in place when these things would come into play? What sort of rulers were the Caesars? How did they come to power? How did they exit? How did the Jews and Christian fare under them? Which predictions of prophesy were fulfilled long ago or may be awaiting fulfillment in days ahead? There are some latter day theories that hinge upon the rise of a new Roman empire and some that see no mention of Rome at all, with a few scattered theories in between. Which of these have any scriptural basis?

All of these are important questions for understanding the workings of God in the days of the Christ and of his apostles, and then away into our own times. The church had its beginning during this period and it should be useful to identify the road signs and markers on all of these events, those which can be identified, so that we might have a better understanding of God’s will for mankind.

In that light, we offer this “lite” series on the history of Rome. It is not intended to be comprehensive, but is only a simple relating of the basic history of the Roman Empire through the Caesars into the fourth century. That should mean that this will improperly serve serious inquiry and only offer enough to perhaps whet the most pallid of historical appetites. It may possibly serve to pose more questions than it rightly can answer and so it may offer answer to only just a few. Yet, if we only pause long enough to ponder, if we only correct some misconception, or if we only cause someone to take a deeper look, then we have accomplished what was here set out.

The series begins with a few thoughts and scriptures on the place Rome was accorded in some of the prophecies of Daniel, and continues with an encapsulated biography of most of the rulers through the reign of Constantine the Great, all in seven or eight parts, as the information requires.

In the prophecies of Daniel

Rome appears prominently in the prophecies of the book of Daniel. For instance, in the course of the interpretation of the dream of Nebuchadnezzar as presented in Daniel chapter 2, four successive kingdoms were mentioned before the Kingdom of Heaven should be established.

Beginning in chapter 2:39—40, the dream text states that Babylon, the first of the mentioned kingdoms, was likened to gold. It was noted as superior to the three that would follow. According to the prophecy, each ensuing kingdom was to be of a lesser stature as compared to its predecessor.

The other mentioned kingdoms or empires were the Medo-Persian, the Macedonian, and lastly, the Roman.

The Roman was characterized as inferior to all of those previously mentioned (with “feet of miry clay”).

In the interpretation of the dream Daniel listed that these four kingdoms would rise prior to “…the kingdom which shall never be destroyed.” And it was to be the last of these kingdoms of men that would to be smitten by the stone “cut out without hands” (v.34), during the time of said kingdom of men “…shall the God in heaven set up a kingdom…” (v.44).

Therefore, some five centuries before the coming of the Christ, God Almighty issued some information concerning the importance and status of the empires of men as concerned heavenly things. It is during the early days of the fourth mentioned kingdom, the Roman Empire, that the church of Christ was in fact established (as the earthly entrance) and the Kingdom of God was then again returned to humanity.

While much of western civilization considers Rome the greatest of all ancient kingdoms, God apparently had a somewhat different view. Indeed, the Revelation of the Christ did not picture Rome as a good or superior civilization. Anything likened to a beast is usually not thought of as good.

In the next installment, we will look briefly at the Chaldean, Persian, and Macedonian empires, and then move on into the history of the founding of the Roman republic.

In secular Greek, the word “savior” was “a laudatory name that men bestow in recognition of noble actions.” Performing deeds that safeguarded the people or preserved what was precious could earn a person the title of savior. The title of savior was common used for the Roman emperor, especially denoting his ability to maintain or restore peace in the empire.

Notice how the word “savior” was used in connection with Julius Caesar: “In addition to these remarkable privileges they named him father of his country, stamped this title on the coinage, voted to celebrate his birthday by public sacrifice, ordered that he should have a statue in the cities and in all the temples of Rome, and they set up two also on the rostra, one representing him as the savior of the citizens and the other as the deliverer of the city from siege, and wearing the crowns customary for such achievements” (Dio 44.4.5).

Notice the word was also used in connection to Augustus: “Whereas the Providence which has guided our whole existence and which has shown such care and liberality, has brought our life to the peak of perfection in giving to us Augustus Caesar, whom it filled with virtue for the welfare of mankind, and who, being sent to us and to our descendants as a savior, has put an end to war and has set all things in order” (Priene calendar inscription; 9 B.C.). The emperor was repeatedly called “the savior of the world” and “the savior of the inhabited earth.”

The conflict

Of course, the apostolic message would have been in conflict with imperial Rome. The apostles announced Jesus to the Savior and Son of God. The Samaritans realized that Jesus was the true Savior in John 4. “And they told the woman, “We no longer believe because of what you said, for we have heard for ourselves and know that this really is the Savior of the world” (John 4:42). Notice how John testifies of this same message in his epistle: “And we have seen and we testify that the Father has sent the Son as Savior of the world. Whoever confesses that Jesus is the Son of God—God remains in him and he in God” (1 John 4:14-15).

The conflict concerning who is Savior and Son of God is described thoroughly by theologian N.T. Wright:

“If Jesus is Messiah, he is of course also Lord, Kyrios. The proper contexts for this term, too, are its Jewish roots on the one hand and its pagan challenge on the other. Taking them the other way round for the moment: the main challenge of the term, I suggest, was not to the world of private cults or mystery-religions, where one might be initiated into membership of a group giving allegiance to some religious “lord”. The main challenge was to the lordship of Caesar, which, though certainly “political” was also profoundly “religious”. Caesar demanded worship as well as “secular” obedience; not just taxes, but sacrifices. He was well on the way to becoming the supreme divinity in the Greco-Roman world, maintaining his vast empire not simply by force, though there was of course plenty of that, but by the development of a flourishing religion that seemed to be trumping most others either by absorption or by greater attraction. Caesar, by being a servant of the state, had provided justice and peace to the whole world. He was therefore to be hailed as Lord, and trusted as Savior. This is the world in which Paul announced that Jesus, the Jewish Messiah, was Savior and Lord” (Center of Theological Inquiry).

We have always described Jesus as only a Savior from our sins. While this is true that Jesus has brought us salvation from sins, eternal punishment, and separation from God, we must accept that there was more implied when the apostles spoke of Jesus as the Savior. The apostles were also declaring Jesus to be the true Savior because his deeds truly safeguarded the people.

N.T. Wright adds:

“The Caesar-cult was fast-growing, highly visible, and powerful precisely in its interweaving of political and religious allegiance. As various writers have recently urged, you dont need such a strong military presence to police an empire if the citizens are worshipping the emperor. Conversely, where Rome had brought peace to the world, giving salvation from chaos, creating a new sense of unity out of previously warring pluralities, there was a certain inevitability about Rome itself, and the emperor as its ruler, being seen as divine. Rome had done — Augustus had done — the sort of thing that only gods can do. Rome had power: the power to sweep aside all opposition; the power, in consequence, to create an extraordinary new world order. Rome claimed to have brought justice to the world; indeed, the goddess Iustitia was an Augustan innovation, closely associated with the principate. The accession of the emperor, and also his birthday, could therefore be hailed as euaggelion, good news (we should remember of course that most of the empire, and certainly the parts of it where Paul worked, were Greek-speaking). The emperor was the kyrios, the lord of the world, the one who claimed the allegiance and loyalty of subjects throughout his wide empire. When he came in person to pay a state visit to a colony or province, the word for his royal presence was parousia (Center of Theological Inquiry).

In these statements I want us to see what the Christians of the Roman empire were dealing with. Their statements would have been contrary to imperial Rome. Their message would have been confusing at first for their gospel was not of emperor Tiberius, Caligula, or Nero, but of a Jewish rabbi named Jesus. It was Jesus who was the true Savior, the true Son of God, and true peace-maker. The terminology of the Christians would have been familiar to those in the Roman world, except that Jesus is the subject and not the current emperor. With Roman ears listen to these words, “We preach to you the gospel, that Jesus is the Son of God and the Lord of all the earth, that he has brought peace and is the savior of all men, and that he now abides in heaven.” This summarizes the messages preached by apostles in the New Testament.

Conclusion:

As we conclude this article, I would like for you to consider the last sentence made by N.T. Wright:

“When he [the emperor] came in person to pay a state visit to a colony or province, the word for his royal presence was parousia.”

Paul uses this very word in 1 Thessalonians 4:15 in reference to the future coming of Christ. Some denominations have turned the parousia into an incomprehensible concoction of the beginning of a tribulation, rapturing of the saints, and other worldwide chaos. But notice the simplicity of what Paul is trying to picture for us. To have the emperor arrive in your province was a great honor and was cause for celebration. Coins were minted to mark the event and the emperors presence marked a new era for the people. When Christ returns it will mark a new era as the righteous will be taken home to be with the Lord while the wicked are separated from God for eternal punishment. A simple image with a simple message to turn to the Lord before Christ comes.

Roman context

The Romans spoke about the gods in a unique way. The Latin word deus was the word used to refer to the traditional Roman gods. A living Roman emperor was never called deus. But we know the emperors thought of themselves as gods and called themselves gods. But they used a different Latin word divus. At first, this word was assigned to an emperor after his death, but over time was used for the living emperors. While this convention was useful for the Romans in Latin, the common person in the empire did not speak Latin. Greek was the language of the common person. The Greek language has no distinction for the word “god” like the Latin does. In the Greek, the only word to use for “god” is theos.

I believe we can immediately see the problem that would arise when the emperors would demand recognition as a god. While the Roman emperors did not refer to themselves as theos when they communicated in Greek, the rest of the world did. For a Christian to speak of theos would be an obvious reference to the true Creator. But to the Greeks, the word theos had no such significance. In fact, they would speak of the emperor as theos. By using this word, the people were acknowledging that the emperor had a certain kind of divine power. Further, the assembly of the province of Asia marked on the calendar “the birthday of the god,” and decided that in the games “a crown be awarded to the one suggesting the greatest honors for the god.” In both cases, the references to “the god” are references to Augustus Caesar.

The conflict

While the Latin had a word to place the emperors as divine, but not to the level of their traditional gods, this was completely lost in the Greek. The common and official title of Augustus Caesar in Greek documents was “Emperor Caesar Augustus, son of god.” An inscription from Pergamum refers to Augustus as “The Emperor Caesar, son of god, Augustus, ruler of all land and sea.”

This issue was part of the issue the Pharisees were trying to trap Jesus with concerning the question of taxes. In Matthew 22:15-22 we read about the conflict. Jesus asks a denarius to be brought to him and asks, “Whose image and inscription is this?” We recognize that the image on the coin was Tiberius Caesar and Jesus then say to give to Caesar what is Caesars. But what did the inscription say? On the front, the coin said “Tiberius Caesar, son of the divine Augustus.” The reverse side of the coin read “Greatest Priest.” But that is how it was inscribed in Latin. In Greek, Tiberius coins and inscriptions read theou huios (“son of the god”). Note with special emphasis that Tiberius put the word “god” before the word “son” in his inscriptions and coins.

Jesus, Son of God

This background sets the stage for understanding the impact of Jesus teaching and the apostles teaching. As you may know, the synoptic gospels were written to three different audiences. Matthew was written to a Jewish audience and Luke was written to a Greek audience. But the gospel of Mark was for a Roman audience. Notice how Marks gospel begins: “The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1). Remember in our last lesson that the word “gospel” in a Roman context spoke of the celebration and joy concerning news about the emperor. Therefore, Marks gospel opens declaring the beginning of the celebratory news of the emperor, Jesus, the divine. We must see how the apostles message was adversarial to the minds of imperial Rome. Tiberius declared himself to be emperor, son of Augustus, the divine one. Jesus declares himself to emperor or ruler, son of God, the divine one.

Matthew also seems to impress this comparison in his gospel. Matthew 14:22-33 records Jesus walking on water. Peter comes out of the boat and also begins to walk on the water toward Jesus. After Peters failure, Jesus and Peter get in the boat and the winds cease. “Then those in the boat worshipped Him and said, “Truly You are the Son of God! (theos huios)” (Matthew 14:33). As the crowds are shouting out to Jesus on the cross, they said, “He trusted in God; let Him deliver Him now if He will have Him; for He said, “I am the Son of God ” (Matthew 27:43). The crowd challenges Jesus to show himself to be the theos huios, the Son of God.

But even more impressive to me is the Roman centurion who is witness to all the events of Jesus. His confession should shake us now that we understand the Roman mind of saying these words, “Truly this was the Son of God! (theos huios)” (Matthew 27:54). This Roman centurion had seen enough to know that Jesus was the real Son of God. We are impressed with the first century disciples who would preach a message that was counter imperial to the empire and declare Jesus to be the true ruler of the world.